Sustainable Tourism Development

This obligate was downloaded by 113. 210. 1. 106 On 22 surround 2013, At 0728 Publisher Routledge Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number 1072954 Registered office Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, capital of the United Kingdom W1T 3JH, UK Journal of sustainable holidaymakerry Publication details, including instructions for generators and subscription information http//www. tandfonline. com/loi/rsus20 A manakin of Approaches to sustainable touristry Jackie Clarke Version of record for the first time produce 29 Mar 2010.To cite this article Jackie Clarke (1997) A Frame crap of Approaches to sustainable touristry, Journal of sustainable touristry, 53, 224-233 To link to this article http//dx. doi. org/10. 1080/09669589708667287 PLEASE document DOWN FOR ARTICLE Full price and conditions of use http//www. tandfonline. com/page/ terms-and-conditions This article may be used for re essay, teaching, and private study purposes. Any veritable or syste matic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic try, or distribution in every form to each whiz is expressly forbidden.The publisher does no. give any imprimatur express or implied or make any representation that the circumscribe will be complete or accurate or up to date. The accuracy of any instructions, formulae, and drug doses should be independently verified with main(a) sources. The publisher sh either not be liable for any loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand, or be or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material. Downloaded by 113. 210. 1. 106 at 0728 22 certify 2013 A material of Approaches to sustainable tourism Jackie ClarkeSchool of Business, Oxford Brooks University, Wheatley Campus, Wheatley, Oxford OX33 1HX Based on an extensive books review, this paper proposes a framework of attemptes to sustainable touristry. The framework is compos ed of four postures, chronologically sequenced accord to the dominant rationality of sustainable touristry as a self-possession or tendency. The linear perspectives are those of arctic opposites, continuum, achievement and convergence. The framework offers insights into the development of the sustainable touristry concept and enables identification of an authors approach to the concept. Downloaded by 113. 210. 1. 106 at 0728 22 run into 2013Introduction The soul of sustainable touristry has developed from the early is it or isnt it sustainable touristry debate, to the borrowing that research energy should be channelled into practical ways of assisting all forms of touristry to move towards sustainability. The fundamental difference is the assumption of the former, that sustainable touristry is, in some manner, already a possession of certain types of tourism or situation, against the acknowledgement of the latter, that sustainable tourism is not an inbred characte ristic of any quick form or situation, but a goal that all tourism must strive to achieve.The tremendous volume of output on the shell over the last decade (Brown, 1991) has contributed to the recognised ambiguity in terminology (Beioley, 1995 De Kadt, 1990 Lanfant & Graburn, 1992 Murphy, 1994 Pearce, 1992, etc. ) and the surfeit of labels. For pattern, ecotourism has no unequivocal usage. It has been expressed as a symbiotic relationship between tourism and nature conservation (Farrell & Runyan, 1991 Valentine, 1993), been equated with nature tourism (Boo, 1990), and constructed as a Venn diagram (Buckley, 1993 Wight, 1995). Occasionally, labels are have to produce hybrids (see, for example, Dernoi, 1988 Wight,l995).As a concept, sustainable tourism is belt up evolving. A Framework of Approaches to sustainable touristry Based on a critical literature review of both academic and intentness contributions, the proposed framework comp pilfers four positions of understanding of sustainable tourism. These four positions are broadly chronological, reflecting the dominant approach to sustainable tourism and offering insights into the concepts development provide a structure within which an authors approach to the concept may be identified, affording insights for literature reviews.The framework is envisaged as complementary to other work (see, for example, Cazes, 1989 Pearce, 1992). As early literature commonly fixed on shield as the distinguishing feature, this is the unifying theme for the framework. As a 0966-9582/97/03 0224-10 $10. 00/0 JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE TOURISM 1997 J. Clarke Vol. 5, No. 3, 1997 224 A Framework of Approaches to Sustainable touristry 225 criterion, home has shifted from an emotive or even antagonistic quality to neutral ground. An overview of the framework shows the positions forming 2 pairs.The first pair regard sustainable tourism as a current possession of a occurrence shield of tourism, whilst the second pair treat the phenomenon as a goal to be striven for. Downloaded by 113. 210. 1. 106 at 0728 22 swear out 2013 The first position of icy opposites A term adapted from Pearce (1992), the first, and probably the early of the four positions, was that of s as well asl tourism and sustainable tourism conceived as polar opposites (see Figure 1). alternating(a) tourism was the popular label for sustainable tourism, correlative exclusion being implicit in the term.As a force, sustainable tourism was understood to be pulling away from raft tourism, which served as a show of repulsion (for commentary, see butler, 1991 Cazes, 1989 Krippendorf, 1987 Nash, 1992 Richter, 1987 Travis, 1988 Valentine, 1993). so, sustainable tourism and luck tourism were stereotyped as the good and the bad. The negative affectionate and milieual impacts experienced at destinations were attributed solely to mass tourism, which was couched in emotive terms such s hard, ghetto, or destructive tourism. Of course, mass tou rism also cogitate to cuticle, and the outstrip of the tourism involved was the principal delimit characteristic for the polar opposite approach. Wheeller (199la) summarised scale as the focal point the traveller is preferred to the tourist, the individual to the group, specialist operators kinda than the large firms, original accommodation to multi-national hotel chains, base not large essentially good versus bad. Wheeller, l991a, authors emphasis) Representing mass tourism, a Director of the Thomson last Group lampooned the approach by recounting his situation as an ecotourism speaker at a Royal Geographical high society gathering as being rather like a cattle baron addressing a congress of vegetarians. (Brackenbury, 1992 l0) At its most extreme, advocates of secondary tourism pressed for a total electric switch of mass tourism (cited in De Kadt, l990, 1992 Lanfant & Graburn, 1992) and of Cohens (1972) institutionalised tourist.Arguably, the position of polar opposite s was strengthened by the presentation of mass versus sustainable characteristics in diametrically opposed tables (see, for example, Krippendorf, 1982 WTO, 1989). Such tables were developed into concrete notions of bad versus good (see Lane, 1989, 1990). throng tourism Conceptual barrier Sustainable tourism Figure 1 Position 1 polar opposites 226 Journal of Sustainable touristry Thus the earliest understanding of sustainable tourism was one of a dichotomised position.Believers in the polar opposite approach clearly regarded sustainable tourism as a possession of an existing type of tourism based on small scale characteristics. Ownership was claimed by tourism forms opposed to mass tourism. In short, small was synonymous with sustainable. Downloaded by 113. 210. 1. 106 at 0728 22 March 2013 The second position of a continuum By the 1990s, the original position of polar opposites was generally rejected as unproductive, but the notion of a continuum between sustainable tourism and m ass tourism presented a plastic adaptation of the earlier papers (see Figure 2).In recognition that sustainable tourism utilize the infrastructure, transport and reservation systems of mass tourism (see De Kadt, 1990, 1992 Krippendorf, 1987 Wheeller, l991a), spawned an accompanying tourism industry structure (see Cohen, 1987, 1989 Krippendorf, 1987), and had the potential to develop into mass tourism if not aright managed (Butler, 1990, 1992 tourism Concern, 1992), the simplicity of polar opposites was adjusted to a continuum between the two extremes. Variations were take into accountly placed along the spectrum (see, for example, Davidson, 1992).Although allowing some measure of degree, the continuum understanding of sustainable tourism still regarded the phenomenon as a possession and used scale as the defining criterion. Polar opposites and continuum therefore formed a inborn pair. However, the continuum approach to sustainable tourism was only ever loosely launch understa nding was moving in a new direction. Mass tourism Sustainable tourism Figure 2 Position 2 continuum Criticisms too simple, too impractical Criticisms and queries have been voiced over these early approaches to sustainable tourism.The idea of polar opposites representing right and wrong was denounced as grossly mislead (Butler, 1990). Most criticisms related to one or both of the following withal simple the inadequate appreciation of tourism as a driving and complex phenomenon resulting in the inherent flaws in this understanding of sustainable tourism. overly impractical the question of scale and the inability of this narrow view of sustainable tourism to offer practical solutions to the world(prenominal) hassle of the burgeoning volume of tourist arrivals. touristry is a complex and dynamic phenomenon (Heath & Wall, 1992 Przeclawski, 1993), yet sustainable tourism from the polar opposite and continuum positions assumed a homogeneity and simplicity in infringe with reality (Cooper et al. , 1993). Faced with the dramatic growth in international tourism from the 25 million trips of 1950 (WTO, 1993) to the 531 million of 1994 (WTO, 1995a) and its continued predicted growth (WTO, l995b), the replacement of mass tourism with the sustainable tourism promoted by the two positions was illogical. Being small scale, sustainable tourism lacked the capability (Butler,A Framework of Approaches to Sustainable touristry 227 Downloaded by 113. 210. 1. 106 at 0728 22 March 2013 1990 Cohen, 1987 Cooper et al. , 1993 Fennell & Smale, 1992 Pearce, 1992). Sustainable tourism could neither manage the number of arrivals nor replace the economic benefits accrued (Butler, 1992 Cohen, 1987). For Wheeller (1990, l991a, l991b), the idea was a micro solution struggling with a macro problem. Furthermore, this understanding was inward-looking, failing to recognise the importance of other industry sectors and the wider location of sustainable development (Hunter, 1995).Indeed, the second pair of positions better demonstrate the fascinate of the sustainable development landmarks that shaped the concept (for example, IUCN, 1980, 1991 The knowledge domain Commission on purlieu and Development, 1987 the GLOBE 90 and 92 conferences The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development with Agenda 21). Other criticisms concerned make dos such as elitism (Cazes, 1989 Richter, 1987), the problems of ensuring local ownership and control (Cater, 1992), and inbalances in power (Wheeller, 1990, l991a, l991b).Butler (1990) argued that the approach to sustainable tourism portrayed a static picture of impacts. The revision of features related to time and process produced a less flattering scenario (Butler, 1990). For example, the more exquisite contact between host and guest over a extended duration resulted in greater damage to the fragile host horticulture than was readily apparent in the good versus bad tables. The emergence of these tables was part a res ponse to an over-simplistic interpretation of Krippendorfs work (1982, 1987). Krippendorf (1987) was not opposed to mass tourism as long as it fareed towards harmonious tourism.In fact, he urged that only if we succeed in living with tourism as a mass phenomenon, ? , can we claim to have made a fateful step forward, (Krippendorf, 1982 111, authors emphasis) an assertion often overlooked by proponents of a polar opposite or continuum approach. The third position of effort Criticisms of the earlier understandings of sustainable tourism, coupled with a closer alignment to sustainable development, resulted in the demand to change mass tourism to more sustainable forms (see, for example, Bramwell, 1991 Butler, 1990, 1991 Cohen, 1987 De Kadt, 1990 GLOBE, 1990 EIU, 1992).If the main problem of modern tourism is that of its huge number, (Krippendorf, 1987 42, authors emphasis) then mass tourism was the most visible and sensible prospect for initial reform. The sustainable tourism as und erstood under case differed from the earlier definitions of sustainable tourism on three key dimensions The issue of scale became more objective and less emotive. Mass tourism became the subject for improvement, rather than the derided villain. Sustainable tourism became the goal for attainment, rather than the possession of an existing scale of tourism. Operationalising current knowledge to move towards the goal became the 228 Journal of Sustainable touristry (mass tourism) elephantine scale tourism Sustainable touristry Goal Downloaded by 113. 210. 1. 106 at 0728 22 March 2013 Figure 3 Position 3 movement practical instruction of effort, rather than the is it or isnt it sustainable tourism debate of previous(prenominal) years. Figure 3 illustrates the understanding of sustainable tourism by movement advocates. As a label, large scale tourism is preferred to mass tourism, for it sheds the negative connotations.Viewed objectively, large scale tourism possesses strengths whic h could be used to gain The environment is attacked by other industries, such as mining and manufacturing (EIU, 1992 McKercher, 1993), and tourism is dependent on environmental quality. The tourism industry must comfort its assets size is key, as large players exert pressure through throwbying power. Large scale operators have the marketing and communication skills, plus contact opportunities in bulk, to actively foster interest in sustainable tourism amongst the millions of consumers who buy their products. Large size confers influence over suppliers and distributors, which could be used as a persuasive force for the introduction of sustainable policies along the supply chain. Of course, there are less altruistic reasons for large scale tourism to instigate movement towards the sustainable tourism goal. The imposition of environmental regulative control by governments grappling with world problems of acid rain, ozone layer depletion and global warming require a minimum resp onse of compliance.From the demand side, the rise of consumer interest in green issues (see ETB, 1992a, 1992b Green, 1990) provides the classic incentive of consumer charters. The interest expressed by consumers through financial institutions in environmental implements is a set ahead motive. There are over thirty an ag em en im ts pa ct ys -e as nv ses tem iro nm s s re ent men use t al Guid , re au eline cyc di s for le, red t susta uce inab le to urism law Company/organisation nidus ta lm s pac im cts al pa lob G im al sic y ph al/ gic olo Ec (sustainable tourism) gnomish scale tourism iro nm en En v -e nv iro nm e nt al A Framework of Approaches to Sustainable touristry 229 Downloaded by 113. 210. 1. 106 at 0728 22 March 2013 environmental or ethical funds in the United Kingdom, representing virtually ? 750 million of investment according to independent financial advisors Holden Meehan (1994), the idea of avail with principle has moved from the fringe to the mainstream .Investors are stakeholders requiring satisfaction. There are galore(postnominal) examples of large scale tourism proactively moving towards the goal of sustainable tourism (see Middleton & Hawkins, 1993, 1994 WTTERC, 19911994). British Airways was one of the first tourism companies to publish an environmental embrace (British Airways, 1991), the internationalistic Hotels Environment Initiative was a sector-specific project (Van Praag, 1992), whilst the Green musket ball programme was targeted across the tourism sectors (WTTERC, 1994).The ball Travel & Tourism Council, a coalition of Chief Executive Officers from international tourism companies, established the cosmea Travel & Tourism Environment look into Centre (WTTERC) to monitor, assess and make known objectives, strategies and action programmes in respect of environmental attention (WTTERC, 1992). Over one hundred guidelines and codes of practice relating to tourism were identified (WTTERC, 1993) the environmental guid elines of the WTTERC itself provide a useful synopsis of the large scale understanding of sustainable tourism (WTTERC, 1992).As Figure 3 demonstrates, the focus of this approach is on the physical/ bionomic environment, with an emphasis on environmental management systems, incorporating techniques such as environmental examines of products, processes and issues, and environmental impact assessments. The fourth position of convergence The framework culminates in a position of convergence (see Figure 4). This position represents the latest understanding of sustainable tourism as a goal that all tourism, no matter of scale, must strive to achieve (see, for example, Inskeep, 1991).Accepting that the concept of sustainable tourism is still evolving, the absence of a precise goal definition is less important than general movement in the correct direction. Appreciating the wider role of sustainable development, this final position recognises two interpretations of sustainable tourism. T he large scale interpretation of sustainable tourism (as portrayed in position three) has a dominantly physical/ecological perspective expressed as a business orientation. The small scale interpretation of sustainable tourism offers a social slant from a local or destination platform.It is akin to the understanding of sustainable tourism as alternative tourism under position one, except for the of the essence(p) recognition of the concept as a goal rather than a possession. Both interpretations focus on the implementation of their current knowledge of sustainable tourism to move towards the ultimate goal of sustainability seek future progress towards the desired goal through the twin processes of further development of ideas inherent in their own interpretation and by adaptation of ideas found in the other.Together, this results in convergence towards the goal of sustainable tourism. For example, in this quest, large scale tourism is experimenting with techniques for inducing shi fts in tourist behaviour compatible with environmentallyfriendly travel, an educational component instigated by the small scale enterprises. Thomsons now provide environmental guidelines for guests TUI 230 Journal of Sustainable Tourism Downloaded by 113. 210. 1. 106 at 0728 22 March 2013 Large scale tourism al nm vi ro En Figure 4 Position 4 convergence ave produced an environment ranking for products featured in all their mainstream Euro-brochures. In turn, small scale enterprises are learning about the development of effective environmental management systems, originally the territory of large scale organisations. In the UK, the environmental audit was promoted for small scale concerns by the West Country touring car batting orders (1993) Green Audit Kit the project was then taken nationwide. In addition, by embracing sustainable development, both interpretations are pervious to further ideas generated from outside the tourism sector.Like large scale tourism (see position thr ee), the small scale interpretation of sustainable tourism has produced guidelines and codes of good practice (see, for example, ETB, 1991 Countryside Commission, 1991 Green, 1990), established destination-based projects (for example, the Devon-based Tarka Project) and offered and disseminated advice to interested parties (ETB, 1992a, 1992b, 1993). -e nv iro nm en ta l en t im g olo Ec m an ag em y ph al/ ic al sic en ts pa ct ys -e as nv s e s te m ir o nm sm s re en use tal ent Guid , re au eline cyc s for le, r dit sust edu aina ce ble t ouri sm Equity Company/organisation focus ba Gl p l im s act p im Sustainable Tourism Goal ts ac Local area identity focus Equity Guid e Loc lines for al c sust ont aina Ed rol ble t uc ouri ati To sm on u of Au ris hos tc th t/to e n ha r uri tic act st ity eri s ti cs s act ts mp pac y al i rit ultur l im a c teg loc In o cial/ tion/ a S stin De Small scale tourism A Framework of Approaches to Sustainable Tourism 231 The accurate framework Ta ken as a whole, the framework both structures and partly explains some of the conflicts and debates that have occurred in sustainable tourism.Although due regard should be given to the limitations of a framework based purely on a literature review and purporting to be complementary in nature rather than encompassing, it does present insights to past development whilst taking a view as to the direction of future advances. 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